Back to Greek Culture Homepage >>
Greek History, History of Greece, Greek History Timeline, Alexander the Great

Introduction to Greek History

The Greek culture and civilization has contributed immensely to our modern western world. It will be of interest to any one who is a thinker to realize the importance of the  “gifts” we received from the Greeks as well as understanding that the root of our current philosophy, art, literature, democracy and architecture were greatly inspired from the Greek culture. By going to the source we can have a better understanding of where we came from and therefore a better understanding of who we are today.

There are different theories how Greek Civilization originally started. Some say, Greek culture was heavily influenced by the Middle East, some say Greek culture was influenced heavily by the Ancient Egyptians, and some say the chief influence came from the Europe.

Greek History is a very comprehensive subject and cannot be covered enough just on this website. It is suggested to read books or take a class in an academic setting, or the best option is to visit Greece itself to learn more. The following is meant to be a brief summary of some highlights of Greek History. Many Scholars break down Greek history into the following time periods (the exact dates of the time periods vary from source to source):

Neolithic Period (6000  -  2900) –  The earliest stages of settlement and social evolution occurred in Greece between 6000 and 3000 B.C., building the foundation for major advances to begin shortly thereafter. Current evidence suggests that Greece was settled by people from the Near East, primarily Anatolia. But some historians argue that groups from Central Europe also moved into the area. Extensive archeological remains of a number of farming villages of the Neolithic Era have been discovered in the plains of Thessaly in present-day east central Greece.

Early Bronze Age (2900  -  2000) – Caves were discovered in the Argolis, and have found that the Greeks were trading with their neighbors at that time. Metallurgy, though it began in the preceding Neolithic period, takes off: daggers and ornaments of bronze, vessels and jewelry of gold and silver, and objects of lead are found at many sites. Also, many villages and towns grew larger, and some became fortified, suggesting that warfare has become a major feature of life.

Minoan Age (2000  -  1400 BC ) –  One of the earlier people to appear in Greece where the Minoans in Crete.  They were eventually conquered by the Mycenaeans. The Minoans used a script called Linear A, and till this day has not fully been translated.
Palaces were created for the upper classes. These palaces were known to be multiple stories with interior and exterior stair cases, massive columns, storage magazines, and courtyards.

Mycenaean Age (600  -  1100 BC) – Also referred to as the Bronze age of Greece. Many of the Greek stories and myths came from this time period.  Greek was controlled by an aristocracy at the time.  The Mycenaean’s also used a script called Linear B, which was not translated until 1957.  Another unique aspect of this people is they mummified the dead who were of the higher classes and often buried them with physical items that were important to that person including jewelry and weapons.

The Dark Ages (1100  -  750 BC) – The reason this period was called the “Dark Ages,” because the Greek civilization was in demise. According to some experts famine and disease was rampant leading to decrease in the population and flourishing of Greek culture. The art of writing was largely lost after the fall of the Mycenaean palaces, so the only source of writing for this time is the work of the poet Homer, who wrote in the ninth century B.C. The disruption that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean palaces was great. Groups of people migrated to different areas, and the population declined, probably reaching its nadir in the tenth century B.C. Archaeological records indicate that in the Dark Age most people lived in small communities in remote areas supported by subsistence farming. Most trade and contacts with cultures in the Near East and elsewhere fell apart.

Archaic Period (750 - 500 BC) – The Greek monumental stone sculptures of the human body were found from this time period.  The City-States have begun to emerge as a new form of government. Italy and Sicily colonization by the Greeks have also started around this era.

Classical Period (500-336 BC) – There seamed to be a political rivalry with the Persians and the King of Macedonia and Alexander the Great lived in this time period. Athens had reached its political height, the Parthenon on the acropolis was built, The tragedies of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides were created; and the founding of the philosophical schools of Socrates and Plato were during Classical Period.

Hellenistic Period (336-146 BC) – Alexander the Great conquered Persia during this time and Greek culture was spread all over the world. According to some scholars, the death of Alexander was the beginning of this time period. The world became more unified under Greek influence. After the death of Alexander the Great, there were power struggles for certain geographic areas. These wars were called, “wars of Diadochi,” which is Greek for successors. This period ended when the Romans conquered the Ptolemaic Egypt area and ruled by Octavian who defeated Marc Antony at Actium and Cleopatra.
During this period, the Idealism of classical art gave way to a higher degree of Naturalism which comes as a logical conclusion to the efforts of the great fourth century sculptors (Praxitelis, Skopas, and Lysipos) who worked towards a more realistic way of expressing the human figure.

City States – Athens and Sparta

The two most well known city-states during this period were the rivals: Athens and Sparta. It was the strengths of these two societies that brought the ancient world to its heights in art, culture and with the defeat of the Persians, warfare. It was the same two Greek states whose thirst for more power and territory, and whose jealousy brought about the Peloponnesian wars which lasted 30 years and left both Athens and Sparta mere shadows of their former selves.
The seeds of the classical period were sown in the 8th century with the committing of Homer to writing which in a way created a code of conduct and an ethnic identity for the Greeks. The heroic exploits of Odysseus, Achilles and the other Achaeans served as role models for the Greeks which told them how to behave, (and in some cases, how not to behave) in many situations, particularly on the field of battle and in competition. Just as important in the creating of  a Greek identity was the emergence of the Olympic games and the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi both of which had their roots in the 8th century.

The Spartans

The Spartans who were founded by Lycurgus around 800 BC were known for their militaristic society. These Spartans, known as the Lacedemonians controlled the Peloponessos. The Spartans had not always lived in such a society. Earlier in their history they had produced art, poetry and music and seemed to be on the same course as the rest of Greek civilization which might have led them to give us some of the famous names that have been passed down through history. But from the late 8th Century Sparta fought a war with their neighbors in Messinia to the west and unlike other wars in ancient Greece where an invading army fought, won, worked out a treaty and left (to fight again someday), the Spartans subjugated the entire population of Messinia, reducing them to slaves or helots. These helots were no more than serfs and worked the land for the Spartans. Because the helots vastly outnumbered them, the Spartans had to create a society that would protect them not just from external enemies.
Though it is easy to get the impression that the Spartans were a society of militaristic robots this is not the case. The Spartans were known for their wit and their ability to say a lot without wasting words. Because the helots did all the work the Spartans had plenty of time for leisure and it is a myth that they spent every free moment in training.  Nonetheless much of their time was spent in training in the art of war and discipline and their soldiers were feared by all their enemies and even some of their 'friends'. Marching into battle to the sound of flutes and inspirational music the Spartans seemed to be completely comfortable and at ease which of course made their adversary uncomfortable and uneasy. They used mercy as a tactic as well. The Spartans would not pursue and slaughter a retreating enemy, considering such behavior disgraceful and not befitting a true warrior. This gave their adversaries the option of not fighting to the death but turning around and running and living to fight another day. It was a policy of Lycurgus not to fight too many wars with the same opponent since that gives him a chance to learn your style and strategies and defeat you.
They used mercy as a tactic as well. The Spartans would not pursue and slaughter a retreating enemy, considering such behavior disgraceful and not befitting a true warrior. This gave their adversaries the option of not fighting to the death but turning around and running and living to fight another day. It was a policy of Lycurgus not to fight too many wars with the same opponent since that gives him a chance to learn your style and strategies and defeat you.
In his final act as leader Lycurgus informed the Spartans that there was one thing more that had to be done and that he needed to go to Delphi to ask the Oracle how best to implement this final piece of the puzzle. He made the Kings and the people of Sparta take an oath that they would not change any of his laws until he returned. He left the city and disappeared forever.

The Athenians

The primary rivals of the Spartans were the Athenians who were  founded by Theseus around 1300. Theseus was from the city  of Troezen across from the Saronic Island of Poros and was said to have been born in the union of Aegus, king of Athens and the daughter of Troezen's King. At the age of sixteen Theseus was given the task of lifting the heavy stone where his father had put a sword and sandals. Successful in his efforts he walked to Athens to find his father, defeating monsters and evil along the way. After arriving in Athens as a hero he volunteers to go to Crete where King Minos has been demanding a sacrifice of young men and virgins to a monster called the Minotaur. Theseus defeats the Minotaur and returns to Athens though he forgets to remove the black sail of death from the ship. His father, King Aegeus thinking his beloved son has died hurls himself into the sea, which is how it came to be known as the Aegean.  Upon his return he abolishes the monarchy and declares Athens a democracy and unifies the scattered villages of Attica. He makes it a policy to give aid to the weak and helpless. His exploits also include adventures with Hercules, Jason and the Argonauts, the Amazons and even a journey to the underworld. Later he was overthrown and then murdered while exiled on the island of Skyros. Whether fact or fiction, the meaning behind these stories is what is important to the Athenians. Theseus embodies all they stand for. The Athenians of the 5th Century used his deeds as the standards to measure themselves and their democracy.

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), the king of Macedonia that conquered the Persian empire and annexed it to Macedonia, is considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. He is the first king to be called "the Great." Alexander, born in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, was the son of Philip II, king of Macedonia, and of Olympia, a princess of Epirus.

Philip and Olympia wanted nothing less than the best for their son, so when he was 13, his parents hired Aristotle to be his personal tutor. Alexander was trained together with other children of the nobility at Aristotles Nyphaeon. It is here that Alexander met Hephastion, his future best friend and alter ego. Aristotle gave Alexander a thorough training in rhetoric and literature and stimulated his interest in science, medicine, and philosophy, all of which became of the utmost importance for Alexander in his later life. The two later became estranged, due to their difference of opinion on the status of foreigners; Aristotle saw them as barbarians, while Alexander sought to unite Macedonians and foreigners.

Alexander conquered the Persian Empire, including Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Bactria and Mesopotamia and extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as the borders of Punjab. Before his death, Alexander had already made plans to also turn west and conquer Europe. He also wanted to continue his march eastwards in order to find the end of the world

He was taken seriously ill with malaria at Babylon. The simple remedies of the day did not help him. He died on June 13, 323 B.C. His body was placed in a gold coffin and taken to Memphis, in Egypt. Later it was carried to Alexandria, and placed in a beautiful tomb.

Alexander left no choice for a successor. His only son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander's death. As a result, Alexander's leading generals became governors of various areas and fought among themselves for control of the Empire. But no single leader emerged, and by 311 B.C. the empire split into independant states or monarchies. 

Time Line of Greek History